Understanding the development and history of icons is so important to creating icons today, don’t you think? Icons met the spiritual needs of entire cultures and civilizations through the centuries. In order to reach the people of a specific time period, slightly different approaches and applications in sacred art making were required and evolved.
The Crucifixion Icon 11th Century
For this newsletter, I will focus on what is sometimes called the Macedonian Renaissance. Sometimes called the second flowering of Byzantium due to its occurrence in the same culture but after the disruption of the period of iconoclasm. It’s interesting to note the effects of conflicts politics and religion and then trade routes on the development of the art of the icon.
Historical Context for the Macedonian Renaissance
The First flowering of the Byzantine empire began in 330 A.D., when the first Christian ruler of the Roman empire, Constantine the Great, transferred the ancient imperial capital from Rome to the city of Byzantium. Located on the easternmost territory of the European continent, it was a major intersection of east-west trade. Constantine’s conversion to Christianity and legalization of the practice of the Christian faith changed the dynamics of religious art and cultural in a profound way.
Iconoclasm
However, beginning in 726 AD and ending in 843 AD began the period of iconoclastic dispute over the use of images in the Byzantine Culture. This roughly one hundred year period of iconoclasm, 726-843 AD, is what separated the First flowering of the Byzantine empire from the second. The Macedonian Renaissance began when the Empress Theodosia reinstituted the practice of icon veneration in 843 AD. Although her husband was in favor of iconoclasm, upon his death, Theodora once again legalized iconography and the use of images in worship. Now it was not only legal to create icons for veneration, but greatly encouraged.
It should be noted that during the period of iconoclasm there were several outspoken theologians, especially John of Damascus, whose defense of icons eloquently cleared up the confusion on nuances of veneration vs. worship of holy images. However, one of the effects of this destructive period was the weakening of the wealth, prestige, and power of monasteries. A central feature of Byzantine culture was Orthodox Christianity. Byzantine society was very religious, and it held certain values in high esteem, including a respect for order and traditional hierarchies.
As you remember, In the Byzantine world, Iconoclasm refers to a theological debate involving both the Byzantine church and state over theological issues as well as economic ones. This controversy spanned roughly a century and resulted in the large scale destruction of icons and monasteries.
Empress Theodora
Icons and religious art resumed only after the successful defense and reinstitution accorded to icons by Empress Theodora in 843. The art of the Macedonian Renaissance carried forward the icon’s classical roots stemming from the Late Roman period, in terms of decorative and artistic styles. This period produced a shift from the ban on the painting of religious figures to the painting of icons that would reflect the more classical and naturalistic influences of art on the culture. This new style of art may have inspired Italian artists such as Cimabue and Giotto at the dawn of the Italian Renaissance in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century.
A Cultural Shift
The second half of the 9th century saw a lavish program of redecoration of churches, such as the creation of mosaics and icons in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. Two main developments helped drive the revival in culture and education in the empire: this was the greater involvement of the church in education, and the other was the concentration of cultural life in Constantinople due to the movement of people from an agricultural culture to city and mercantile life.
Ladder to Heaven Icon, 11th century, Mt. Sinai
Many of the icons on Mt. Sinai are from this period. This new style of painting icons is characterized by a lighter, more pastel color palette. Iconographers also continued the painterly quality already established during the earlier Greco/Roman influenced icons of the early Christian era. However, by the end of the tenth century, the lines become more rigid, and harsh, with a stylized rendition of the folds of garments. This rigidity carried over into the ethos of icon painting. Now no deviations from pervious icons was to be allowed or considered correct.
It was at this time that the concept of a “prototype” became established. The divine grace of a new icon was thought to be transmitted by how closely it resembled the earliest icon of that person. The idea being that “once the image of a saint had been established, that image would be endlessly repeated….“Although the artist was allowed some freedom of expression, detailed requirements for the depiction of the saints has been laid down by the Seventh Ecumenical Council of Nicea in 787. The specifications were fixed from the descriptions in the biographies of saints and laid out in a book called “The Herminia”, which all icon painters followed. The idea was that there should be so little deviation in the depiction of the saints that the viewer should be able to recognize the icon without having to read the inscription. After all, few people of that time could read.” Laurel Glen, “The Art of the Icon”
Mother of God, Orans. Hagia Sophia. 11th Century
During the Macedonian Renaissance, Icons became more decorative, halos with decorative gilding techniques were added. A greater attention to detail , borrowed from the illuminated manuscripts, prevailed. These icons also achieved more of a narrative than the very early icons. A good example of this is the Nativity icon, where the story of Christ’s birth is charmingly told, reading from left to right, and top to bottom of the icon. (The top icon is from the 16th century, Russia)
At the top are the angels worshipping and then proclaiming the birth of Christ to the shepherds. Next level down on the left are the three wise men, on the right are the shepherds, in the center is Mary and the Christ child in a cave/stable with a horse and ox amongst them. On the bottom left you find Joseph being tempted to doubt by the devil, and on the bottom right are the women attendants, bathing the Christ child. Below is another example of the Nativity Icon but from the 11th century:
The subject, figures, and narrative are the same as in the above icon of the Nativity, but in this earlier icon, while the composition is different, the story is recognizable as the same icon but of a later century.
End of An Era
Towards the end of the 12th century, icon painters became influenced not only by illuminated manuscripts, but also by frescos. This resulted in more saturated colors and more solidity of form. As icon painters began to spread westward, mosaics became major influencers of style and form. This heralded the beginning of the end of the second flowering of Byzantium, but also a wonderful period of innovation and beauty in the icon. As icon painters moved westward, the Greek and Russian painting styles began to emerge. And that story is for another newsletter!
Interesting Links:
Orthodox Church of America: Article on the icon of the Nativity
Sister Vassa gives a talk (just under 10 minutes) on Iconoclasm:
Icon Boards: St. Elizabeth Icon Studio- Price and size List Also Bob Higgins makes beautiful gessoed icon boards: rahiggins55@gmail.com
That’s all for this month, may God bless the work of your hands,
Christine Hales
New Christian Icons My Dec. 5-8 online icon writing class of the Nativity
American Association of Iconographers 